Hyponsis Essay Example For Students

Hyponsis Essay AbstractThis paper focuses on the history and science of hypnosis. The introduction discusses the origins of hypnosis that date back to pre-historic times and the first people to employ hypnotic-like methods to alter or change human behavior using the power of suggestion. A background and study of Franz Anton Mesmer, the man who most people associate with the beginning of hypnosis, is elaborated on throughout this paper. I will also discuss what hypnosis is, how it is used to explain human experiences, and how research does or does not support the theory of hypnosis. I will also give examples of how hypnosis is applied, why it’s used, and how it has been viewed in the past and present times. The History and Science of HypnosisIntroductionA brief history of the concept of hypnosisThe science of hypnosis, remote from being a practice of modern times, is one that has been studied and pondered over since pre-historic times. The employment of hypnotic-like methods to alter human behavior using the power of suggestion and repetitious incentives to rouse the mind or the spirits were used by numerous ancient civilizations (Baker, 1990, p. 51). These methods were usually associated with a confidence in magic and the occult, and the belief that these procedures were beyond human understanding. According to Baker (1990), priest-physicians of ancient Egypt induced sleep-like states in other people. This practice was also prominent in the sleep temples of classical Greece. In this case, worshippers attempted to conjure Hypnos, the god of sleep, who it was believed brought them prophetic dreams. Another example of the use of hypnotic-like methods dates back to 2600 BC in China, where Wang Tai, the father of Chinese Medicine, wrote of a â€Å"medical procedure that involved using incantations and mysterious passes of the hands over the patient that leaves no doubt about its hypnotic nature (Baker, 1990, p. 51). According to Baker (1990), the use of hypnotic-like techniques and procedures were mentioned in the Hindu Vera, written about 1500 BC, and the Ebers papyrus, which is known to be over 3,000 years old, narrates an expressive method extremely similar to the techniques modern hypnotherapists practice today. Although the practice of hypnosis appears to have begun during these pre-historic times, and there are many more accounts similar to the latter, the fact is that these people of different lands, thousands of years ago, may have known about the strange powers of hypnosis; that it appeared to be magic and it helped cure the sick, but these ancient people knew little about what hypnosis really was (Kennedy, 1979, p. 22)Attempts to provide scientific explanations for the existence and the cure of diseases began in Europe during the 16th century. Up until this time, the causes and cures for diseases were attributed to supernatural or metaphysical causes. Paracelsus (1493-1541), a physician and alchemist, who was born in Switzerland, was among the first theorists to offer such a scientific explanation. He suggested the idea that magnets and the heavenly bodies-the sun, moon, and stars-possessed healing effects that could be used on the human body (Baker, 1990, p. 53). From this time forwar d, a number of similar notions motivated the study of physicians, astronomers, physicists, and healers of the sick. Gul Maxwell, a Scottish physician, proposed the idea that a universal and vital force adversely influenced and affected humans, in 1679. The efforts and studies of Maxwell impacted Richard Mead, an 18th century English physician, and led him to begin studies dealing with the universality of life. Around 1771, Maximillian Hell, who was a Viennese Jesuit, became known for cures that he attained by applying a steel plate to the bodies of people who were sick or diseased. In 1774, Hell met a Viennese physician, Franz Anton Mesmer, and demonstrated to him the healing powers of his magnetized steel poles (Baker, 1990, p. 53). Given all of this information, it is a mystery tome that the history of hypnosis is often associated with Mesmer, and that it is he who is often considered when the beginning of hypnosis is reflected. However, Mesmer did contribute to the further develo pments and understanding of hypnosis. In the late 1700’s, Mesmer began using a new kind of medical treatment in Vienna, Austria. â€Å"With it, Dr. Franz Mesmer was said to be curing patients doctors called ‘incurable’. Using no medicine, Franz Mesmer was curing these people with magnets† (Kennedy, 1979, p. 25). It is true that Mesmer was thought to have cured numerous patients through â€Å"mesmerism† and â€Å"animal magnetism†, but the validity of these claims were uncertain. Mesmer developed the theory â€Å"animal magnetism†, and surmised that a universal magnetic fluid existed in all â€Å"objects that produced disease when it was out of balance in the human body† (Baker, 1990, p. 53). As a result of this theory and the belief Mesmer had in it, he began to cultivate techniques that he thought would re-establish the equilibrium of the magnetic fluid, and as a result, diseases would be cured. Mesmer based his theories and prospects on his belief that perfect health was dependent upon an individual maintaining a right relationship with the heavenly bodies. Mesmer became convinced that the same powers that held the sun and moon and planets in place regulated human health. When a magnet was brought into contact with a patient, the subtle and mysterious fluid exuded by the magnet entered the body of the patient and healed him of his complaint. â€Å"Animal magnetism† was the name Mesmer gave this fluid (Baker, 1990). The execution of Mesmer’s â€Å"animal magnetism† made him famous. He called his way of curing people with this method â€Å"mesmerism† (Kennedy, 1979, p. 28). He passed long iron rods and magnets over the bodies of sick patients to enhance the balance of their fluids. Now that we have a basic understanding of where hypnosis came from and how it transcended into time, I will explain the science of hypnosis. I will talk about how Mesmer applied â€Å"animal magnetism† in specific cases, and why his theories were refuted by many scientific and medical communities. Then, I will discuss what hypnosis really is, and how it is used to explain human experiences and what they mean. How research supports or refutes such theories will also be discussed. The Basic Nature of HypnotismFor a period of about 5 years, animal magnetism was very popular in Paris around 1778. Hundreds of the sick were treated at the clinic that Mesmer and his friend founded in Rue Montmartre, a clinic that was founded with Queen Marie Antoinette’s permission (Baker, 1990, p. 56)In curing his patients, Mesmer walked around them touching each one with a wand, advocating them to yield themselves to the magnetic fluids about. He told them that they could only be cured if they were able to focus on the heavenly powers that existed within their sick bodies. He pressed his clients to â€Å"reach further into your mind,† (cited in Baker, 1990, p. 56). He drove these people to reach what Mesmer called â€Å"a grand crisis†, known today as a grand mal convulsive seizure. Mesmer reported that this grand crisis was the reason many of his clients were cured. According to Thornton (1976), the origin of the behavior that is now attributed to hypnosis r esulted from the misdiagnosis of the ancient malady epilepsy. Trying to relate Mesmer’s convulsing patients with the characteristics of hypnosis; relaxation and calamity perplexed many. Many did not see Mesmers patients as experiencing the same things that hypnosis would evoke from a patient. Importance of Being Earnest Argumentative EssayThe use of hypnosis as an anaesthetic can be traced back to a French surgeon named Cloquet, to John Eliotson at the University College Hospital in London in the 1830’s, and to James Esdaile’s use of mesmeric techniques in India (Baker, 1990, p. 199). However, the pain killing that was reported in those instances was not clear-cut. In Hypnosis, Compliance, and Belief, Wagstaff (1981) states that the work of Eliotson and Esdaille may not have been so pain free. According to Wagstaff, the number of people who undergo surgery without pain under hypnosis is very small. This observation was shared by Baker (1990) as well. â€Å"While the number of people who could undergo painless surgery without anesthetics is quite small, it is important to point out that the number of people selected for surgery with hypnosis is equally small. Those who have studied the problem are in general agreement that the number is much less than the frequently reported ten percent. Two to three percent would be much more accurate.†According to Baker (1990), investigators have also said that cultural factors affect the way people respond to pain. For example, people that live in Third World countries, in poverty, hunger and disease, have a tolerance for pain much unlike people from America and Western Europe. Situations that would seem very painful to Americans may not seem so painful to people of more primitive cultures. It is believed that if one is brought up to think that a surgery will cause little pain, then that is what will happen. In China, for instance, children are conditioned to believe that surgery such as tonsillectomies cause little or no pain (Baker, 1990, p. 200). This kind of conditioning is extremely important in determining what is painful and what the level of pain experienced is. According to Wagstaff (1981), if Esdaille was able to carry out operations without pain on the East Indians, this does not mean that he would have been successful if he had tried this with Americans or Europeans. The way surgery is done under hypnosis varies. One way of suppressing pain during surgery without anesthetics is through the placebo affect. Until recently, it is very possible that many medicines were placebos, i.e., sugar pills. So, it was not the medicine that brought about pain relief but the belief that one had ingested medicine (Baker, 1990, p. 201). According to Baker (1990), an example of the use of placebos was during World War II when two surgeons without any access to anesthetics were forced to use hypnosis as a painkiller. The two surgeons suggested anesthesia from fake morphine pills, and it worked. Distraction also works well. An example of this is one needs to get stitches in his/her leg, the nurse would squeeze the patients hand very hard to try and distract the pain from the leg to the hand. Other distractions may include imaging a fantasyland, or trying to imagine that one’s body is completely numb in the area where the pain is coming from. This may include t aking very deep breaths. â€Å"All of these activities serve well to reduce the amount of felt and reported pain† (Baker, 1990, p. 200). In addition to the placebo effect and suggestion, relaxation is also useful when trying to alleviate pain. Muscle relaxation is clearly related to pain responsiveness. â€Å"Relaxation is very effective in reducing fear and anxiety, which are inextricably liked with the pain response† (Baker, 1990, p. 200). The main difficulty with relaxation techniques to soothe pain is that when you have a person who is suffering from a traumatic would and is in need of relief from fear and anxiety, it could be very hard to persuade this person to take deep breaths and calm down. In today’s world, contrary to the prior situations discussed, our society’s have a very low tolerance for pain, and it is unlike that many would prefer the alternate pain relievers associated with hypnosis as opposed to anesthetics. According to Baker (1990), pain is the single most reason that people see physicians today, and it is the number one reason that people take medication. These are just a few examples of how hypnosis is used to heal and cure, but it is unlikely that these practices are used much today. In a world full of technology and of the medical advances that we have today, it is easy to see why. But, one still has to wonder, if one really could heal himself without putting chemicals and medicines into his/her body, wouldn’t he/she rather heal themselves. I’m not sure I would, even after reading up on many cases that claim people have felt no pain during surgery because of hypnosis. In a world of medicine, I think I would opt for the friendly practitioner to scribble me a prescription that could leave me feeling better in minutes than try to convince myself that my body is numb, or that I’m in a fantasy land. However, the prospect of healing myself is tempting, just not convincing enough for my skepti cal mind. ReferencesBaker, Robert A. 1990. They Call it Hypnosis. New York: Prometheus Books. Estabrooks, George H. 1957. Hypnotism. New York: E.P. Dutton Co. Inc. Hull, C.L. 1933. Hypnosis and Suggestibility: An Experimental Approach. New York: Appleton-Century. Kennedy, Marge M. 1979. The Mystery of Hypnosis. New York: Contemporary Perspectives, Inc. Sheehan, P.W. 1979. â€Å"Hypnosis and the Process of Imagination† in Hypnosis: Developments in Research and New Perspectives. New York: Adline Publishing. Co. Thornton, E.M. 1976. Hypnotism, Hysteria, and Epilepsy: An Historical Synthesis. London: Heinemann. Van der Walde, P.H. 1965. â€Å"Interpretation of hypnosis in terms of ego psychology.† Arch.Gen.Psychiatr. Vol. (12), 438-447. Wagstaff, Graham R. 1981. Hypnosis, Compliance, and Belief. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Weizenhoffer, A. M. 1953. Hypnotism. New York: John Wiley Sons. .1985. â€Å"In search of hypnosis† in Modern Trends in Hypnosis. New York: Plenum Press. Psychology

What is an Essay Sample?

What is an Essay Sample?By now, everyone that is involved in the work world knows what an essay or the reading of an essay sample is all about. A recent survey shows that nearly 60% of students in college do not know that. They simply write down a general concept, make a summary of it and move on.Sometimes, an entire semester could be completely destroyed by not having the proper essay or reading sample in hand. Those taking classes online can save time and still get the information they need to solve homework problems, get into their professor's classroom, learn from lectures and stay up to date with the current course materials. It is the best way to ensure a student gets the most out of their education.One of the best ways to have an effective essay is to consult a professional writer. Someone who has experience writing essays and reading samples will be able to guide you through your writing process and help you through the editing process. Someone who has made a career for thems elves doing this type of writing will be the perfect essay writer for you.Reading an essay sample is like having an experienced advisor who can give you valuable information in how to solve problems and what kind of responses to offer. Not only will they help you develop better methods of doing things, but they will help you develop an even better understanding of how to solve real-life problems. This will enable you to communicate with people, think more clearly and increase your overall productivity.Getting a great essay on paper can have a large impact on your resume. Although most employers are much more concerned with the right approach to solving a problem and the best response to offer in an interview, an essay sample can help you gain that extra bit of credibility you will need to stand out from the crowd.Writing an essay or reading an essay sample is definitely one of the best ways to improve your writing skills. One mistake can ruin any essay or reading sample because of p oor grammar and poor sentence structure. When writing the essay, make sure that you can easily follow the instructions so that the essay can flow smoothly from beginning to end.If you have never done any homework or reading samples before, writing your own assignment can help you hone your skills and strengthen your understanding of writing and grammar. The best part is that you can complete this project all on your own time without spending too much time researching or asking for help.

Dramatic Monologue Talking Heads Essay Example

Dramatic Monologue Talking Heads Essay In reading Alan Bennetts selection of monologues I have analysed each character used. Having studied them closely I have gained respect for each character; in dealing with their myriad of individual, and sometimes shared, problems they each have still managed to live, what is to them if no-one else, full and relatively normal lives. But I have also developed feelings of sympathy towards one character in particular. With another I have developed an overwhelming lack of compassion. Bennett describes the character in A Chip in the Sugar, a middle-aged man called Graham Whittaker, quite guardedly at first. The way that Bennett imparts information to his readers is very sporadic. In doing this he tends to deceive us a little, letting our own imaginations run wild about the truth behind the character, their real persona. This can make it difficult to trust the opinions, tone and actual basis of the monologue. We will write a custom essay sample on Dramatic Monologue Talking Heads specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Dramatic Monologue Talking Heads specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Dramatic Monologue Talking Heads specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Graham Whittaker is an unreliable narrator. He relates conversations had between his mother, her friend Mr Turnbull and himself with a rather self-pitying slant. He makes out that he was ignored and ridiculed by Mr Turnbull and his mother, who at the beginning of the monologue says how much Graham means to her. Graham, I think the world of you. This could also be deceiving however, due to the fact that we are not given all of the information about Graham from the start. My lack of compassion for Graham Whittaker stems from his relationship with his mother. Although, as we find out in the monologue later, Graham is obviously mentally ill, he leads us to believe that his mother is completely reliant on him for most tasks. they slipped her mind, so the rest of the operation devolved on me. Why does he do this? It is obvious as her relationship develops with Mr Turnbull that Mrs Whittaker isnt as dependent on Graham as he would like us to believe. In my opinion Bennett is suggesting that this is what Graham wants us to believe. If we accept that Mrs Whittaker needs Graham, then that gives him a purpose. He is not just a middle-aged man still living with his mother; he is someone that is needed. Without him his mother may come to some harm. It is this attitude that annoys me about Graham. Due to his fear of uselessness he is holding onto his mother and, in effect, holding her back from her life. What right does he have to do that? Throughout the sketch Bennett tells us that Graham needs a stable environment. I agree with this and can empathise with Grahams uncertainty after his mother meets Mr Turnbull, but this still does not negate the fact that Mrs Whittaker has a life too. As in all of his sketches, Bennetts structure of writing can be very misleading. We are informed of important information right at the end of the story, and told seemingly pointless material in the beginning. What is most disappointing about Graham is the appearance of happiness when he starts to find out that Mr Turnbull isnt all he says he is. Is this because he wants to feel needed/necessary to his mother? Or is it fear? Fear of going back to the hostel surrounded by people that he doesnt understand, I sometimes feel a bit out of it as Ive never had any particular problems, or is it something darker? Bennett hints at this at the end of the sketch when he writes of Grahams seeming indifference to his mothers pain. The structure of the last couple of paragraphs is a defiant tone, followed by relief from Graham. For his mother it is heartbreak followed by reluctant acceptance. All in all, a heart-wrenching finale for Mrs Whittaker without any support from her selfish, unstable son. After reading A cream cracker under the settee I felt so much sympathy for the character Doris. Bennetts telling of her plight gave me an insight into her pain and loneliness and elicited a feeling of terror. From the beginning we are given a view of Doris that is of a very proud and hardened old woman. But the clinch of the story is that Doris is alone. She has no friends, no relatives (that she mentions), she is childless and has recently been widowed. To top it all off, the Social Services are threatening to take away her home and put her into Stafford House, to all accounts a home for the elderly. Doris has recently taken a fall whilst dusting a wedding photograph of her and her husband. She wasnt supposed to dust. The way that Bennett tells us this elicits yet more sympathy from me. Imagine not being able to do something you wanted to do in your own home. Granted it was obviously with the best intentions and as it turns out it would have been best for our character but when you are slightly obsessive with regards to cleaning, like Doris When people were clean and the streets were clean and it was all clean, surely youre entitled to dust in your own home? The most terrifying and saddening part of this tale is simply that Doris decides to give up. You can see that from her point of view being dictated to like a child is not what she wants for the last years of her life. It seems to me that Bennett wants us to experience what Doris is feeling. The loss of her husband, the emptiness and loneliness that engulfs her, the constant threat of losing her home, the loss of her child (in her mind it was a child, despite what the midwife said) and the unfailing pride that ultimately is going to end her life. Bennett leads us up to the very end of the sketch letting us believe that Doris will in fact get help. He introduces a couple of possible saviours, either coming into the garden or up to the front door and finally a friendly policeman. As Doris sits by the front door, slowly giving in to the pain in her legs and, I expect, by this time further pain throughout her body from sitting on the floor for so long, I felt so much compassion for her and yet also a little happiness would she be saved? Or would she be allowed to rest with her husband? As the sketch comes to a close the policeman comes to the door and asks Doris if she is ok. Being the proud lady she is she refuses to admit that she needs help. No, Im all right. As he walks back up the path we finally see what Bennett wanted us to see. That sometimes it is okay to be alone in the dark, because to let go and drift away to that feared, unknown place, ultimately you wont be alone anymore. I feel sympathy for Doris because she was alone. When she chose to die, there was no-one there to be with her, or talk to her. All she had was memories of her husband and the life they led together. The only person who would even know she was gone would be her Social Services appointed cleaner. Its done with now.

3 Reasons NOT to copy your Resume Summary into your LinkedIn Summary Section!

3 Reasons NOT to copy your Resume Summary into your LinkedIn Summary Section! Many people on LinkedIn make the mistake of copying their resume summary statements into their LinkedIn Summary section.   There are three major problems with this strategy: Problem #1: Trite Phrases Often your resume summary is laden with overused phrases like â€Å"Results-oriented team player with a proven track record†¦Ã¢â‚¬  or â€Å"Dynamic, motivated self-starter with extensive experience†¦Ã¢â‚¬  If your resume summary looks anything like the above examples, please rewrite it and hire a professional resume writer if necessary!   This type of language belongs neither on your resume nor in your LinkedIn profile. Problem #2: LinkedIn Summary Real Estate You have 2000 characters at your disposal for a LinkedIn Summary, vs. three to four lines maximum for your resume summary.   Why would you choose not to use all that real estate to say something – really say something – about yourself? Problem #3: Keywords Your LinkedIn Summary is an essential place for you to insert keywords if you want to be found on LinkedIn.   By inserting a 3-line summary, you lose out on your chance to build keywords into your profile. Resume Summary Example For Resumes Only Here’s an example of a very strong resume summary statement that does NOT belong in a LinkedIn Summary (note I DO like this statement as a resume summary statement – in fact I wrote it!): LeeAnn Dance Producer    Writer Editor Award-winning television producer and groundbreaking investigative reporter -    experience covering issues ranging from pre-election to international news, with special emphasis on East Africa.   Creator and writer of highly acclaimed documentaries and promotional videos for non-profit organizations. Eight years as producer for CNN. LinkedIn Summary Example Great Model! What would a LinkedIn Summary look like for LeaAnn?   Here is the statement we wrote for her: Award-winning investigative and documentary television producer Video production and broadcast journalism have been my passions for over 20 years, ever since receiving my MS in Journalism from Columbia University. I have produced everything from groundbreaking news stories for CNN to promotional videos for non-profit organizations, and I am currently hosting a blog radio show for parents relaunching their careers. My journalism background gave me the ability to distill a large amount of material and hone in on what’s true and important. I can pinpoint the real message that needs to be conveyed, creating a human story that moves and inspires an audience. Promotional Videos for Non-Profit Organizations As a freelance video producer, I specialize in creating high caliber, professional and creative promotional videos for non-profit and educational organizations. I understand the budgetary constraints of non-profit organizations and will work within a range of budgets and scope of work. Funders respond to high quality video presentations that effectively convey your organization’s message. I will take your message, target it, and transform it into a concise and meaningful array of pictures, words, and sounds. You will then have the power of an impactful video to present your organization’s activities at fundraising events and through the web. Back in Force In addition to being a video producer, I was a stay-at-home mom for 13 years, and I am committed to providing resources to women who are returning to the workforce. The Back in Force blog chronicles my journey and shares information about the return-to-work process. Blog topics include emotional roadblocks to relaunching, preparing your resume, updating your wardrobe, and preparing your family for re-entry. Check out my weekly blog talk radio show on relaunching your career, with guests including authors, career counselors, therapists, and employers. (www.blogtalkradio.com/backinforce) What works about this LinkedIn Summary Example? Conveys LeeAnn’s story and her passion (the resume summary does not). Contains multiple keywords that will get LeeAnn found on LinkedIn. Covers the different facets of what LeeAnn has to offer. Draws the eye to sub-headings so that readers can easily see what LeeAnn is about.   The text is broken into bite-sized pieces, not so blocky that no one will read it. Has a call to action. Note that the resume summary does NONE of these five things, even though it is perfectly great as a resume summary. Can you write a LinkedIn Summary Statement for yourself that accomplishes at least four out of the five functions listed above?   If yes, great go for it!   If you need help, consider contacting The Essay Expert for a free 15- minute consultation.   We will be happy to write you a LinkedIn Summary that will help you get found on LinkedIn and have the impact you want on the people who read your profile.

Starbucks and Its Difficulties During the Time of Economic Hardship Case Study

Starbucks and Its Difficulties During the Time of Economic Hardship - Case Study Example Branded firms have their unique approaches to improving their market reach, brand image of the product, and maintain the quality standard of the product. Keeping in view the rapid rate of their expansion and growth at multiple locations these companies manipulated their marketing strategy according to the location since different locations offered different marketing environment (Larson. 2008). These companies focused more on its quality standard by critically handling the entire process involved from the purchase of raw materials till it's possession by its end user. These companies took a great care of each and every step to avoid compromising the quality standard of their products. In case of Starbucks Corporation, the firm created a coffee culture and also provided an atmosphere of relaxation for their customers who helped them in bringing the concept of â€Å"third place† where the first and second places were considered to be the home and office respectively (Larson, R. (2008). Many efforts are made by these companies under its strategic approach towards marketing to gain their customers’ trust and offer a value-based service to their customers. The companies also face problems due to variations in their customer group which varies with the location. Under such circumstances, these companies faced challenges which were mainly of following types, what mode should be used by the company to exist in the international market, how they should design their product offering to their customers keeping in mind the variations among the behavior of customer group. Along with it, another major challenge for such companies was to compete with other brands of the same industry serving globally to their customers. The marketing strategies adopted by Starbucks Corporation worked like a magnet which drove their customers to do things as per the company’s expectation (Carroll. 2007). A brand name in watchmaking industry is Maurice Lacroix which is famo us for its luxurious watches adopted strategy to promote their product and also form the alliance with a brand name in movies production house Dream Works for their film named Time Machine.

Project management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project management - Assignment Example Team functionality and consequent performance depends on various collaboration aspects that are designed to enhance the realization of the project objectives. Communication is a fundamental aspect in the undertaking of a project that engages team work. There should be a clear flow of information from the team leader to the members and vice versa. This flow is designed to maintain a consistent system through which all players in the team are kept posted to emerging issues and expected trends in the project (Gowen, 2007). Team efficacy is highly influenced by modes and means of communication within and without the team. It is important that each member contributes to the design, formulation and implementation of a communication process that is properly suited to the specific variables of the project being undertaken. Running of a project is not always at par with the expectations. However, with effective communications designs, it easier for the entire team to deal with emerging challe nges in the process. The team encompasses diverse and dynamic reasoning, knowledge and skills. Project undertakings also require that balanced collaboration be observed if the desired results are to be achieved. For this reason, the team cannot avoid discussions and decision making at both individual and team level. This requires that effective communication among all stakeholders. ... Team coordination of project phases is characterized by numerous activities. These activities call for decision making from time to time, across every stakeholder. With proper communications designs, negotiations fall into place. Negotiations encompass critical evaluation and assessment of scenarios that need to accounted for as different project activities unfold. Negotiations are designed to bring on board different views of every person involved, so that what is decided upon binds to every team participant. Negotiation in the team level aims to bring to terms all the individual duties and responsibilities, so that what is achieved reflects a team effort. Although the team is made up of a number of players, each player’s contribution counts in the overall success or failure of the team. On the same note, the different players are divided in accordance to their specialization, prior to the activities that need to be undertaken, and the duties and responsibilities that need to be met. Therefore, the team operates in functional areas that range from management and leadership, finance, operations and human resource (Bollen, 2009). The interaction of these parties must encompass proper negotiations, so that in case anything goes wrong in the process, a blame game does not emerge. In such an instance, these functional areas engage in discussions, evaluations and assessments that account for misconducts realized if any. Team performance is highly dependent on the meetings aspect. Meetings are inevitable at all decision making levels. From the time the team is being formed to the completion of the project, meetings play an essential role in uniting all

Leadership Styles in Knowledge Management

Leadership Styles in Knowledge Management This research paper aims to study the three basic leadership styles widely practiced in the organizations as well as the emerging concept of knowledge management and examine individually the relationship of these leadership roles on the knowledge management. The three leadership styles under focus are: transformational, transactional and laissez-faire. The purpose of this research is to identify which leadership style is more effective in relation with the knowledge management. Hence, to help organizations make the best use of this phenomenon and increase their knowledge sharing among different hierarchical levels to exercise maximum levels of learning and innovation in their work environment. It will also enable corporations to gain the competitive advantage with respect to their human capital and. When it is discovered that which managerial style has the positive impact on the knowledge management, it will result into employee empowerment and motivation. Among the important finding s are that effective knowledge management or knowledge sharing processes lead to a competent work environment and the employees get more involved with their jobs as they feel that their ideas are valued. Moreover, they tend to get more creative and challenging, but these behaviors are majorly dependent upon the managers attitude and whether he or she encourages such contributions or interferences from the subordinates and is flexible and open to change and innovation. In the outcomes, transformational leadership has proved to positive relationship with knowledge management and that of the laissez-faire has a negative effect on it. This paper has derived findings through extensive study of literature reviews on these main concepts which is based on theoretical researches. Keywords: Knowledge management, Transformational leadership, Transactional leadership, laissez-faire, Communication. Introduction: Background of study: In this research we are going to study the various factors affecting the issue of Knowledge Management among employees and how can it become most useful for the growth of an organization. The concept of Knowledge Management basically is about the knowledge an individual possesses about anything and this particular kind is referred to as tacit knowledge which is usually gained through personal observation, experience, values and beliefs. Such form of knowledge is usually exhibited in informal settings and could not be formally written or documented into a proposal to the manager. As it is something that can cross an employees mind instantaneously but he or she might not feel confident to share their idea openly in the given atmosphere, where they might think it would sound insignificant or absurd to others. To sum up, the purpose of knowledge management is to provide strategies, processes and technology to amplify the overall organizations learning (Satyadas et al., 2001). Moreover, s ystem oriented view is highly being emphasized and companies are installing technology applications ranging from traditional data-processing areas to expert networks enabling expert-to-expert communication. These systems are designed to store and make profit from the existing explicit, implicit as well as tacit knowledge of organizations. Hence, they facilitate the flow of knowledge in the processes and also record the information that which employee has put in the knowledge and how its implementation could help the organization, so that the right person should get the reward fairly and it is done as an act of encouragement for others. In todays world of immense market competition and rivalry among brands, there is an increasing need of formulating progressive organizational strategies constantly for a companys survival. There organizations are now paying most attention to the notion of innovation, which is majorly generated from the employees. Hence, it is highly important for an o rganization to have a culture that is flexible, open to new ideas, adaptive to change and appreciative of contribution of knowledge. Hence if the sharing of knowledge from individuals is encouraged and valued, it can enable a company to be competitive and help in achieving its goals, provided it is in relevance with the problem. (Birasnav, Rangnekar, Dalpati, 2011) Moreover, if that knowledge is used and followed through, it gives a sense of recognition, achievement and personal satisfaction as well as a sense of belonging. It matters most especially to the senior employees who do not much care about the other lower components of the Maslows motivation theory of hierarchy, as those needs are already fulfilled at this stage. Leadership Styles are at the center of Knowledge Management importance and approaches that have caught the attention of researchers and scholars for long periods. Overly technical view of Knowledge Management seems to downplay the importance of soft factors that impact the Knowledge Management phenomena. Significance of study: Managing knowledge and intellectual capital has become the key drivers of new knowledge and new ideas to the innovation process, to new innovative products, services and solutions. It helps in better achieving and even exceeding the objectives. (Knowledge Management in Health Science Libraries, 2007) The purpose of knowledge management should not be to become just knowledgeable but to be able to create, transfer and apply knowledge with aim of better achieving the objectives. Problem Statement: The current competitive setting of organizations and the changing management paradigm has highlighted the importance of Leadership Styles on Knowledge Management. Identifying Leadership Styles that promote concept and practice of Knowledge Management is crucial as the growth and competitiveness of organizations in new-age economy. Research Question: What are the different leadership styles that affect knowledge management in organization? What are the ways in which different leadership styles affect knowledge management? Purpose of study: The purpose of this study is to examine the different roles of leadership in the knowledge management and how this has an impact on the overall organization. Research objectives: To identify and evaluate different roles of leadership To examine the impact of these different roles of leadership on knowledge management Delimitation: Only few educational institutes are surveyed for the primary research from Rawalpindi and Islamabad only. Literature Review: Knowledge management has been identified as one of the most important resources that contribute to the competitive advantage of an organization. Behavioral and interpersonal skills are most often known as the essentials for successful knowledge management. Knowledge can be within individuals or within the relationships between the individuals groups or sub groups. Without verbal or even the non verbal communication the only way to organize knowledge transfer would be to move around people holding the relevant knowledge. (Ferenc, 2003) For many years it had not been studied despite its importance in this information age; only recently leadership theories and researches have addressed the role of leadership in knowledge management. Researchers (Beron et al. 2006), (Viitala, 2004) suggested that the design and building management information system is one way in which leaders at the top of a corporate have an impact on organizational performance. Recent development in the organizational knowledge literature stresses the importance of knowledge management to building a sustainable competitive advantage. (Bogner and Bansal, 2007) and to the importance of leadership for the success of knowledge management. Recently the growing information systems and knowledge management have continuously stressed the lack of leadership support for the failure of many knowledge management projects. (Davenport et al. 1998), (Chandrashekhar, 2009). It has been found that 42 percent of an organizations knowledge resides in the minds of the employees (Clark and Rollo, 2001); therefore it is dependent upon the leaders how to make the best use of it. Furthermore, as discovered by Doppelt (2003) that in order to achieve sustainability in a corporation, leadership is the key, because a competent and committed leader encourages dialogue which as a result leads to change and so barriers such as sticking to old ideas and cultural frameworks, past practices, tunnel vision and such approaches tha t come in the way to draw new progressive visions for the future. According to the researchers Jong and Hartog (2007) and Aragon-Correa (2007) every leadership style has its own pros and cons; but transformational leadership is more attentive and engaging with the sub-ordinates and encourages them to be creative and focuses on the firms learning and innovation. Whereas, Bass (1985) presented that transactional leaders are not much involved with the subordinates work unless there is a need when a problem arises. On the other hand, he also stated that transformational leaders motivate their workforce, rouses their intellectual skills and acts as role models for them. Moreover, they also have the quality of inspiring the employees into acquiring goal accomplishing skills and improve their performance in achieving the corporate vision (Nemanich and Kellar, 2007). Also, they train, encourage and support their subordinates keenly and optimistically and promote individual and team spirit a mong them. Consequently, it is paid back in the form of boosting employees performance in their tasks and bringing high returns from them (Yulk, 2006; Boerner et al, 2007). Information management: Information as now a day includes both physical and electronic information. Now its the organizations and its structures that must be capable of managing that information throughout the information lifecycle regardless of its sources and formats. Thus the focus on information management is the ability of organization to capture, manage, preserve, store and deliver the right information to right people at right time. Information management becomes the corporate responsibility that needs to be addressed and followed from the senior level management to the front line management. Information is the key asset for an organization and thus should be treated as corporate asset. (Information Management) And it must be made available to everyone and must be shared. People management: Knowledge is the main driver for organizations performance. It affects performance by making it possible for people to perform well. So the instrument by which knowledge affects the performance is through people. So knowledge management must be people focused (Wiig, 2004) (Corral, 1999) Cindy Johnson, Director of Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing at Texas Instruments states: Knowledge management is really about recognizing that regardless of what business you are in, you are competing based on the knowledge of your employees. They way of making knowledge available has evolved over time. It started with family clans where knowledge was passed from father to son by the process of learning. With the new ideas of working in teams, groups, and as institutions, people work closer to benefit from the knowledge of each other. Process Management: Knowledge management is considered as an approach where the employees of the companies would leverage from the buried knowledge that was held closely to them. This enabled the evolution of the term learning organizations where knowledge is always evolving and is being made assessable to all the employees who are eager to attain it and apply it. The focus on improving, re-engineering and managing business process is considered as corporate assets. The companies are taking charge of how they will deliver value to their customers by focusing on process effectiveness and efficiency. While KM and process engineering was evolving at the same time, there were no efforts to combine them in the same architecture. KM has always been focusing on the best practices and proven practices but it had failed to understand how valuable the fusion of process and knowledge can be. So process management gives the ability to view, manage, evaluate, and adapt the business activities, applications, and peop le in organizations to achieve goals. And to achieve these goals there is a need for the management of knowledge where people get an easy access to share and create knowledge (Records, September 2005). Leadership and knowledge management: There is no doubt about it that leaders are the ones who set the standards for others in the organizations and they are one of the biggest driving forces who inspire and motivate them to achieve what they meant to achieve so leaders have direct impact on how organizations should see and deal with knowledge management but if knowledge management is not being conducted on all levels in the organization starting from the top then it would not be as effective as expected (Singh S. K., 2008) Leaders have vital role to play on every level to manage the knowledge but particularly CEO should take part in this process because if he would take it seriously and feel that there is really a need of managing this thing like other practices in the organization then the rest of the people also take it seriously. Organizations with strong cultures and promising compensation programs will not succeed without committed and responsible managers. According to Singh it is the major responsibility of top executives of the organizations to make such strategies and create such values in the organizations which encourage employees to share, create and value knowledge and leaders should provide them with the opportunities to do so and then afterwards measures should be taken to evaluate employees behaviors, attitudes and productivity that are required for effective knowledge management (Singh S. K., 2008) Four broad approaches were studied to understand the leaders and leadership through the trait approach, the contingency approach, the behavior approach and the transformational approach and some of the approaches does have a role in knowledge management but they are not enough to understand knowledge management systematically. The trait approach does have impact on knowledge management and considers it important thing for leaders, contingency and behavior approach also considers knowledge management vital for effective leaders. The transformational approach also support this phenomena that information creation, keeping and sharing facilitates in obtaining shared vision and values in the organization (Lakshman, 2007). Leaders self realization of importance of knowledge management really matters in the effectiveness of knowledge managements practices in the organization and realization is needed in two dimensions, one internal other external. Internally it is achieved by establishing technological and socio-cognitive ways of managing knowledge and externally it is by realization of valuing customer focused knowledge management (lakshman, 2009). Information revolution changes way of doing things in the corporate context, it enhanced the value of time and customers need quick Reponses with relevant and useful knowledge of the products and services so that transformed the process of leadership too by speeding up the inputs, requirement of quick and customized information regarding product and its functions which further builds competition in the business environment. Likewise he emphasizes the need for knowledge managers to achieve and maintain equilibrium between motivating team members with urgency and providing them with time and space to reflect. To become the knowledge sharing and managing organization, leaders have to take the responsibility and have to choose the appropriate leadership style to lead the organization effectively. (Viitala, 2004) Transformational leadership: A framework was established to implement quality management within an organization actually a system of profound knowledge .While implementing it leadership and knowledge management were measured and it was found that in order to implement such system leaders required should be participative, collaborative and inspiring (Gapp, 2002) Transformational leadership have potential to effect employees perceptions through the returns that organization get in the form of human capital benefits and these leaders also have potential to make those benefits greater by adding them in the knowledge management processes, encouraging inter personal communication among employees and creating organizational culture. (Birasnav, Rangnekar, Dalpati, 2011) It is possible for transformational leadership to enhance organizational innovation through creating a participative environment or culture and it can do so directly or indirectly by changing organizations culture which encourages knowledge sharing and management in the organization. It is in the control of transformational leadership to promote such culture so the employees have autonomy to speak about their experiences and knowledge. (Nguyen Mohamed, 2011) There is relation between magnitude of knowledge acquisitions and transformational leadership. In todays challenging world organizational culture should be more empowered and that is achieved by transformational leadership which encourage people to be open about their choices and decisions. (D.Politis, 2001) He encouraged the role of participative leadership, it is this leadership style which relies heavily on the leader functioning as a facilitator rather than simply a leader who orders and wants his assignments done in time. Employee would not be comfortable in sharing knowledge unless employee knows that he/she would be supported by their leaders. Finally, (C.B.Crawford, 2005) argued that there is a clear relationship between transformational leadership and knowledge management in organizations. Crawfords research is pre empirical and made the point very clearly that empirical testing is needed to understand the relationship of transformational leadership and organizational knowledge constructs. Crawfords research provides some basis from which to speculate that transformational leadership might be a causative factor influencing greater knowledge management skills. Transformational leadership and personal innovation are linked. It was found that transformational leaders are more innovative than transactional and laisse-faire leaders. Innovation is considered to be the key factor for knowledge leaders; innovation is the name of managing and creating information and knowledge through different ways. Transactional Leadership: The second variable we are studying in this research, affecting the knowledge management in organizations is the transactional leadership style. This style of leadership is influenced by the concept of reward and punishment; such leaders believe that the employees performance is mainly dependent upon these two factors. That means that when there is an incentive the workers put in their best effort and the reward is in monetary terms in most of the cases; while when they fail to achieve the set target they ought to be punished. (Oshagbemi Ocholi, 2006) Similarly, transactional leaders impose their authority on their followers to take work from them and clearly state what they want and also give employees the opportunity to get detailed information and guidance before they accept an assignment. Such leaders emphasize on present issues; they do not get involved with the employees tasks unless a need arises and in the beginning of a project they provide the workers with all the resource s needed for its completion and after that the task becomes totally the responsibility of the workers (Bass, Cacioppe, Gronn, Hughes.et.al, Popper, Zakkai, 2002).Transactional leadership has two major components, contingent reward and management by exception (MBE). Here, contingent reward means the reward that an employee is promised by the manager, to be acquired if the required target is achieved by him or her and the MBE approach is used to make sure that one should never fail to achieve the desired result due to the resource constraint. Leaders must be clear in explaining what they actually expect and the organizational goal is achieved they must give the recognition. It was also extracted from that manual that MBE is of two types, passive and active. In MBE active, the leader clarifies the standards to be followed and also defines the unacceptable standards of work and are likely to punish if they are not followed. In this strategy, mistakes and errors are identified and steps are taken to correct them. While, in MBE passive, the leader plays a passive role who does not clarify the standards or the requirements to be met by the employees, but only gets involved when there is an obvious issue. Hence, in this case passive style is not considered to be un systematic in correcting the negative issues. (Ogunlana, 2008) Transactional leaders pay more attention to physical and security needs of the employees. The relationship between the leader and the subordinates mainly revolves around the attraction of reward system as a return for their efforts. It is also said that in transactional leadership one person takes the initiative to make a contact with others in order to make a contract of exchanging functions for the benefit of the organization (Birasnav, Rangnekar, Dalpati, 2011). Laissez-faire: Whereas, the third variable in this study is the laissez-faire leadership style, in which the leader gives complete freedom to the employees to make decisions regarding the completion of a task while answering their questions wherever they find problems and the workers are provided with all the necessary resources and tools for that by the leader. Apart from that only little guidance is provided by the leaders and the followers are expected to solve problems on their own (C.B. Crawford, 2005). This strategy is successful in case the workforce is highly experienced, skilled and capable of their jobs, otherwise if the labor lacks these expertise, the researchers recommend it to be an ineffective and the weakest form of leadership which yields poor productivity for the organization, as there are some workers which are unable to solve problems and meet deadlines on their own. Although, in such situations the work environment is quite relaxed, free of work pressure and without interferenc e from the manager, but still it brings frustration and demonization among the teams when they are unable to produce the desired results, without the required feedback and assistance from the manager. But laissez-faire strategy contributes to the employee empowerment and it gives a visionary worker the opportunity to perform according to his or her own will. Lassiz- faire is a leader who always runs away when there is a need to make an important decision or when there is a serious problem (Ogunlana, 2008). The phenomenon of knowledge management is applicable on the whole organizational structure, taking into all the levels of hierarchy. While studied empirically it was discovered that the relationship between the different components of knowledge management and transformational leadership, transactional leadership and self-management have a link with the accomplishment of knowledge forms. Moreover the leaders should be able to give an empowering environment to the employees. Although according to the empirical findings, which are quite limited in this aspect, as well as the theoretical assumptions of a number of authors, there is a need for participative collaborative leadership style in order to facilitate the flow of knowledge. Hence it was pointed out that empirical testing of the knowledge attributes in an organization should be carried out, to find out the relationship between the management of knowledge and transactional leadership in a firm. (C.B. Crawford, 2005) The researcher selected a sample of 1,046 males and females enrolled in liberal classes who were side by side employed in different economic sectors. In the first round they were asked to answer the questions based on the behavioral aspects of knowledge management in which the questions taken from the Barth (2003) typology of personal knowledge management categories. In the round they were asked to fill in the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire 5-S (MLQ) derived from Bass (1985) which comprised of scales measuring the attributes of the three leadership styles: transformational, transactional and laissez-faire. The scales ranged from strongly agree to strongly disagree and as a measure for superior performance or as a self-report measure. But he used the MLQ as a self-report of transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership characteristics. Finally, in the last round, the respondents were asked about their demographics considered important for the research including se x, age, years of employment, education, career type, position at work and use of technology. While conducting the analysis, only the position variable was used that described the respondents as senior managers or executive, supervisors and at entry level. Though the basic purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the knowledge management attributes and the transformational leadership style. In the end various correlations were found that determined the degree of the relationship between the knowledge management behaviors and transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership. Eventually, the outcome of the investigation concluded that the variables leadership and knowledge management are significantly related, both in the organizational setting as well as in theoretical context. The most important results included that there exists a strong relationship between knowledge management and transformational leadership. Moreover, transactional leadership, i t was discovered that as knowledge management is technical in nature, the more effective management style would be transactional. Furthermore, transactional leaders are more goal oriented and not much concerned about the personal development of the sub-ordinates. In addition, another finding was that transactional leadership had strong correlations with knowledge management and contingent reward and it had considerable negative correlation with management by exception. On the other hand, it was analyzed that laissez-faire came out to have a negative effect on knowledge management, which indicates that a leaders role is very essential in managing knowledge behaviors in corporate. Consequently, the negative correlation between the two components indicated an inverse relationship, which means that when knowledge management behavior increases, the extent of laissez-faire decreases (C.B. Crawford, 2005) Additionally that investigation also showed that the hierarchical position an employee has in a company also has a link with the knowledge management, as people handing more information are expected to possess more skill and grip on building knowledge management capabilities. Likewise, leadership attributes are practiced and exerted most according to the position an individual holds; the more the responsibility, the greater the actions of a leader exhibited, to succeed in following an aim or achieving a goal. As a result, there were higher levels of transformational leadership witnessed as the position in a corporate increased, whereas transactional and laissez faire got less. Hence, the position in the hierarchy is also crucial in examining the relationship between knowledge management and leadership attributes; and that variable proved to be predictive of knowledge management, just like transformational leadership. Only transformational leadership style, not transactional or laisse z-faire was related to the impact of position on knowledge management. In that investigation, it was concluded that transformational strategies worked best even where the most technical skills were required, in modern corporate environments as compared to transactional or laissez-faire and are more successful in other organizational constructs too because of their person-centered approach. Whereas, transactional strategies did not enhance knowledge management behavior and laissez-faire leadership slowed it to a significant extent. Furthermore, the higher the positions got in a corporate for individuals; they dealt with knowledge more effectively, because they then adopted more of transformational strategies. But in the significance, leadership is of much greater value than the position variable, effecting knowledge management. (C.B. Crawford, 2005) Laissez-faire as leadership style exhibits ineffectiveness, unproductiveness and dissatisfaction. These leaders avoid interfering in the followers jobs and stay away from taking the responsibility their position demands and also avoid developing a relationship with the subordinates. (Ogunlana, 2008) Proposed Methodology: The sampling method that we will use is purposive sampling which is a non-probability sampling technique. Subjects would be selected because of we will be able to select people of interest and exclude who do not suit the purpose of research. The sector chosen for this study is educational sector, coordinators and head of departments would be researchers respondents. Total sample will be 100 individuals.